SECOND TERM E-LEARNING NOTES JS 3 (BASIC 9) BASIC SCIENCE SCHEME OF WORK FOR SECOND TERM

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SECOND TERM E-LEARNING NOTES

JS 3 (BASIC 9)

SUBJECT: BASIC SCIENCE

SCHEME OF WORK FOR SECOND TERM

WEEK TOPIC

1. Revision of first term’s work
2. Non-Living Things – Atomic Structure; Elements; Compounds; Mixtures
3. Chemical Symbols, Formulae and Equations.
4. Resources from Living Things; Plant resources ; Animal resources
5. Resources from Non- Living things; Soil; Solid minerals
6. Skill Acquisition
7. Ethical Issues in science and Development
8. Light Energy
9. Magnetism
10. Revision
11. Examination

WEEK 1:

Activity: REVISION OF FIRST TERMS WORK

WEEK 2

DATE………………

TOPIC: ATOMIC STRUCTURE

CONTENT

1. Meaning of Atom; Concept of Electrons, Protons and Neutrons
2. Simple atomic model; Properties of atoms
3. Concept of Elements, Molecules, Compounds and Mixtures

Sub-Topic 1: Meaning of Atom; Concept of Electrons, Protons and Neutrons

MEANING OF ATOM

Matter (solid, liquid or gas) is made up of tiny particles called atoms.

An atom is the smallest particle of matter which can take part in a chemical reaction.

An English Chemist called John Dalton (1766 – 1844) put forward some statements about the atom in1803 and 1808 which are referred to as Dalton’s atomic theory. These helped to explain some observations about the structure and behavior of atoms. However with advancement in science and the contribution of more scientists like J.J Thomson in 1897, Robert Millikan in1909-1916 and Earnest Rutherford in 1911, the theory has been modified. Presently, scientists agree that:

1. An atom is made up of a number of small particles namely, the electron, the proton and the neutron. None of these can exist on its own naturally.
2. An atom is the smallest particle of matter that can take part in a chemical reaction.
3. In nuclear reactions atoms can be created or destroyed.
4. Some atoms of the same element have different masses for example in those elements that have isotopes.
5. Most inorganic compounds are formed by the joining of atoms of two or more elements in a definite whole number ratio, but for large organic molecules such as proteins, fats and starches which involve the joining of thousands of atoms, this theory does not hold.

CONCEPT OF ELECTRONS, PROTONS AND NEUTRONS

An atom is made up of three fundamental particles; the electrons, protons and neutrons. Structurally, an atom consists of a small dense, centrally placed nucleus which is surrounded by electrons. The nucleus is made up of the protons and the neutrons. The protons and neutrons are collectively called the nucleons. Most of the atom is empty space. Most of the mass is concentrated in the nucleus.

ELECTRONS: These are tiny particles situated at a comparatively great distance from the centre of the atom. They travel rapidly and continuously in orbits around the nucleus. An electron has a negative charge and a very negligible mass of about 9.1 × 10^-28g, this is about 1800 times lighter than the hydrogen atom.

PROTONS: These are tiny, positively charged particles found in the nucleus of an atom. The positive charge is equal in magnitude to the negative charge on the electron. Thus, an atom with the same number of electrons and protons is electrically neutral. The mass of the proton is 1 × 10^-24g, which is about 1800 times larger than that of the electron.

NEUTRONS: These are tiny particles found in the nucleus of an atom. They have no electric charge i.e. they are neutral. Neutrons have about the same mass as a proton.

EVALUATION

1. What is an atom?
2. Name the fundamental particles of an atom
3. State the charges on these particles and their relative masses.
4. Who was the first chemist to propound theories about atoms?[mediator_tech]

Sub-Topic 2: SIMPLE ATOMIC MODEL

Ernest Rutherford in 1909 proposed a model of the atom. His model showed a small dense, positively charged nucleus surrounded by relatively empty space and electrons continuously orbiting the nucleus at a great distance from it. However in the light of further experimental results, other models of the atom have been proposed.

The electrons occupy different orbits or shells called K,L,M,N, shells or 1,2,3,4, shells round the nucleus. These shells may also have sub shells designated s, p d, subshells.

Examples are;

(i) Hydrogen

Electron on K shell

Nucleus

(ii) Sodium

M shell

L shell

K shell

STRUCTURE OF MATTER

Structure of Matter

Modern physics has revealed successively deeper layers of structure in ordinary matter. Matter is composed, on a tiny scale, of particles called atoms. Atoms are in turn made up of minuscule nuclei surrounded by a cloud of particles called electrons. Nuclei are composed of particles called protons and neutrons, which are themselves made up of even smaller particles called quarks. Quarks are believed to be fundamental, meaning that they cannot be broken up into smaller particle.

PROPERTIES OF ATOMS

Atoms have several properties that help distinguish one type of atom from another and determine how atoms change under certain conditions. These properties include;

1. The Atomic number: The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is called its atomic number (Z). All atoms of the same element have the same number of protons and so have the same atomic number. Atoms are normally electrically neutral so the atomic number also shows how many electrons an atom has. However, an atom may lose or gain an electron to become a charged particle called an ion. When an atom loses an electron it forms a positively charged ion called a cation. When an atom gains an electron it forms a negatively charged ion called an anion. The number of electrons thus determines many of the chemical and physical properties of an atom.
2. The Mass number: The sum of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is called the mass number of the atom (A). The number of neutrons is denoted by N.

The relationship between the number of neutrons and protons is given by; A=Z – N

1. The Atomic Mass and Weight: Scientists use a device called a mass spectrometer to measure atomic mass. The mass of an atom is measured in terms of a unit called the atomic mass unit (amu). An amu is defined as exactly 1/12 the mass of an atom of carbon with six protons and six electrons.

An element’s atomic weight represents the mass of one mole of its atoms. A mole is the mass of a very large number of atoms. A mole of atoms of any element contains 6.02 × 10²³ atoms. This is also called the molar mass.

1. Isotopes: Atoms of the same element that differ in mass number (A) are called isotopes. They have the same atomic number (Z). These elements have the same number of protons in their nucleus but different numbers of neutrons. For example, hydrogen has three isotopes ¹H; ²H; ³H called Protium, Deuterium and Tritium respectively.

HYDROGEN ISOTOPES

EVALUATION

1. Draw a simple atomic model of Helium atom with two electrons, two protons and two neutrons.
2. Briefly describe the three types of hydrogen atoms that exist.
3. Write the (a) mass number (b) atomic number of Sodium atom.

Sub-Topic 3: Concept of Elements, Molecules, Compounds and Mixtures

ELEMENT: A substance that is made up of only one type of atoms is called an element. An element cannot be broken down into anything else. Examples are magnesium, copper, zinc, gold, iron, oxygen, carbon, chlorine, etc.

MOLECULE: The smallest unit of a substance which can exist on its own and retain the properties of the substance is called a molecule. A molecule may be made up of one atom only e.g. Argon (Ar) or a combination of atoms e.g. Oxygen (O₂).

COMPOUND: A substance formed by the chemical combination of the atoms of different elements is a compound. Examples are Sodium chloride (salt), water, kaolin, carbon (iv), oxide, sand, etc.

MIXTURE: A substance formed when elements or compounds are mixed without any chemical reaction occurring is called a mixture. Examples are crude oil, soil, cup of tea, air, palm oil, solution of salt and water, etc. The components of a mixture can be separated by physical means like evaporation, magnetization, filtration, Sublimation, etc.

PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES

1. ELEMENTS:

(a) Chemical Properties:

1. Some elements are very reactive e.g. Sodium, Potassium, Chlorine, Oxygen, etc. Sodium metal readily gets ignited on exposure to air.
2. Some elements are moderately reactive e.g. when iron is exposed to moist air it gradually begins to rust.
3. Some elements are virtually unreactive e.g. Gold does not rust when exposed to moisture.

(b) Physical Properties

(i) Some elements have light density e.g. Hydrogen gas while some are heavy e.g.

Gold, Lead, etc.

(ii) Some elements are colourless e.g. Oxygen, Hydrogen and Nitrogen while some are

coloured e.g. Chlorine, Bromine, etc.

1. Solid, non-metallic elements are brittle and have a dull surface e.g. Phosphorus and Sulphur while the metallic elements are malleable and have a shiny surface e.g. Iron and Aluminium
2. All metals exist as solids at room temperature except Mercury which is a liquid.
3. COMPOUNDS:

(a) Physical Properties:

1. Most compounds formed from the chemical combination of metals and non-metals are soluble in water but not in organic solvents like kerosene.
2. Compounds formed from the chemical combination of non-metals are soluble in organic solvents like kerosene and petrol.
3. Compounds have definite melting and boiling points.

(b) Chemical Properties

(i) Some chemicals react chemically with acids to form a new compound e.g. sodium

hydroxide and hydrochloric acid react chemically to form sodium chloride and

water.

(ii) Some compounds decompose on heating e.g. calcium trioxocarbonate (iv) on

heating produces calcium oxide and carbon (iv) oxide.

1. MIXTURES: Physical Properties:
2. Mixtures can be separated by physical means.
3. Mixtures do not have definite boiling or melting points.
4. The colour of individual constituents is visible.

USES OF SOME ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES

USES OF ELEMENTS

(a) Gold is used in making jewelry and coins. It is also used in art work and dentistry. Radioisotopes of gold are used in biological research and in treatment of cancer.

(b) Iron is used for production of galvanized sheet metal and electromagnets. Iron compounds are used for medicinal purposes in the treatment of anemia and also in tonics.

USES OF COMPOUNDS

(a) Kaolin is used in the manufacture of fine porcelain and china ware; pottery, stoneware and bricks; as a filler for pigments and manufacture of paper.

(b) Salt is used as a seasoning; as preservative for meats; in dyeing and in manufacture of soap and glass. Table salt is combined with small quantities of iodide to prevent occurrence of goiter. Industrially salt is a source of chlorine and sodium. Chlorine is used in manufacture of hydrochloric acid, chloroform and bleaching powder. Sodium is used for sodium carbonate, baking soda and sodium hydroxide.

USES OF MIXTURES

(a) Crude oil is used as fuel (petrol, kerosene, diesel, gas, etc.) and raw material in the chemical industry. Derivatives are used in manufacture of medicine, fertilizers, plastics, paints, building materials and for generating electricity.

(b) Coal is used as fuel. It is used by electric power plants to produce electricity. Industrially it can be converted to coke and mixed with iron ore and limestone to produce iron. The coal gases given off during the process of coke formation are used to manufacture solvents, fertilizers, medicine, pesticides, etc.

EVALUATION

1. Define the following terms and give two examples of each (a) element (b) molecule (c) compound (d) mixture
2. Mention two things each example can be used for.
3. Enumerate three differences between elements, compounds and mixtures

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

1. Complete the missing information below

1. Air is a mixture of gases, mention three of the gases and state two uses of each
2. Collect twelve (12) materials from your environment and classify them into elements, compounds and mixtures.

READING ASSIGNMENT

Functional Basic Science for JJS Book 3; by Onyirioha, C. U et al. (pgs 70-80)

WEEK 3

DATE………………

TOPIC: CHEMICAL SYMBOLS, FORMULAE AND EQUATIONS

CONTENT

1. Meaning of chemical symbols;Groups of chemical symbols
2. Chemical Formulae and Equations

Sub-Topic 1: MEANING OF CHEMICAL SYMBOLS

A chemical symbol is an abbreviated form of the name of an element. It represents one atom of the element.

GROUPS OF CHEMICAL SYMBOLS

There are four groups of symbols namely;

1. Symbols which are the first letter of the name of the element. These symbols are written in capital letters.

1. Symbols which are the first two letters in the name of the element. The first letter of the symbol is a capital letter while the second letter is a small letter.

1. Symbols which are the first letter and another letter in the name of the element.

1. Symbols of elements derived from the Latin name of the element.

CONCEPT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

The most important classification of chemical substances is the arrangement of the elements in the Periodic Table/Chart. A Russian scientist called Mendeleev (1869) was the first to construct a periodic table. He arranged elements in order of increasing relative atomic mass. However, scientists have discovered that elements vary regularly with their atomic number. Each element in the periodic table is represented by a chemical symbol which makes it easy to identify them. Elements that share a column in the table have similar properties. The first twenty elements in the periodic table are;

1. Hydrogen
2. Helium
3. Lithium
4. Beryllium
5. Boron
6. Carbon
7. Nitrogen
8. Oxygen
9. Fluorine
10. Neon
11. Sodium
12. Magnesium
13. Aluminum
14. Silicon
15. Phosphorus
16. Sulphur
17. Chlorine
18. Argon
19. Potassium
20. Calcium

EVALUATION

1. What is a chemical symbol?
2. Enumerate the four groups of chemical symbols and give three examples of each.

1. The periodic table shows the classification of elements in what order?
2. Mention the first twenty elements in the periodic table.

Sub-Topic 2: CHEMICAL FORMULAE AND EQUATIONS

CHEMICAL FORMULAE: A chemical formula is the representation of a substance using symbols and numbers. A chemical formula represents a molecule of a substance(an element or compound) and gives information about the types of atoms present in the substance and their number/proportion.

Every element and every compound has itsown formula e.g. the chemical formula for one molecule of water is H₂O. This means that one molecule of water consists of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen.

Other examples are;

Chemical formulae are written in a particular way to obey certain rules. Each element in the substance is written in capital letter and its proportion/number in the substance is written as a subscript. A subscript applies to the symbol before it e.g. in the formula NH_3, the subscript(3) refers to H(hydrogen) only.

Combining Powers (Valency) of Elements

When atoms of different elements combine during a chemical reaction, the atom that loses electrons becomes positively charged (cation). The atoms that gain electrons become negatively charged (anion). The number of electrons lost or gained by an atom is it’s combining power/ valency. This is in order to attain the nearest noble gas electronic configuration that is, a neutral state.

Metals show positively charged combining power. Non-metals such as chlorine have negative combining power. However, some elements exhibit more than one type of combining power.

Examples;

To write the chemical formula of an ionic compound superscripts are used for the ions, this makes the total positive charges equal the total negative charges. For example Sodium chloride is formed from a combination of a positively charged Sodium ion, Na⁺ and a negatively charged Chlorine ion, Cl^– , thus the chemical formula of Sodium chloride is Na⁺Cl^– simply written as NaCl. Other examples are;

1. Magnesium Sulphide Mg²⁺S^– (MgS)
2. Magnesium Chloride Mg²⁺Cl^– (MgCl)
3. Sodium Sulphide Na⁺S^2-(Na₂S)
4. Aluminium Sulphide Al³⁺S^2- (Al₂S₃)

A group of atoms carrying either positive or negative charge is called a radical(polyatomic ions)e.g. SO₄^2-, OH^–, NO₃^–. The combining powers of such radicals are the net number of positive or negative charges they carry. The chemical formula for such polyatomic ions is written in brackets and the superscript/subscript is placed outside the bracket. Examples;

1. Trioxonitrate (v) ion (NO₃)^–
2. Tetraoxosulphate (vi) ion (SO₄)^2-
3. Trioxocarbonate (iv) ion (CO₃)^2-
4. Sodium trioxonitrate (v) Na⁺NO₃^–= NaNO3
5. Aluminium tetraoxosulphate(vi) Al³⁺⁽SO₄)^2- =Al₂(SO₄)₃

CHEMICAL EQUATIONS: A chemical equation is a condensed statement of facts about a chemical reaction. A chemical reaction takes place whenever a substance undergoes chemical change. A chemical equation is thus used to represent the changes in bonding and changes in energy that take place in the reaction.

Chemical reactions involve reactants and products. The reactants are the substances that existed before the chemical reaction took place. The products are the substances formed as a result of the reaction. For example, hydrogen gas reacts with oxygen gas to produce water (liquid). This statement can be written as;

Hydrogen gas + Oxygen gas → Water

The reactants which are hydrogen gas and oxygen gas are written on the left of the arrow while the product which is water is written on the right of the arrow. This statement can be written with chemical formulae thus;

H_{2 (g)} + O_{2 (g)} → H₂O _(l)

During a chemical reaction atoms may be re-arranged to form new substances but they are never created or destroyed. The equation above is referred to as an unbalanced equation this is because the number of Oxygen atoms on the right is not the same as the number on the left. To balance chemical equations coefficients are used. A coefficient is a number written in front of a formula to balance the equation. Coefficients indicate the smallest number of molecules of a substance that may take part in a reaction. So to balance the equation above a coefficient of 2 is introduced;

2 H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O

The balanced equation reads, two molecules of hydrogen react with one molecule of oxygen to produce two molecules of water. The coefficient multiplies all the atoms in the reaction so; four atoms of Hydrogen react with two atoms of Oxygen to produce four atoms of Hydrogen and two atoms of Oxygen, a balanced reaction. Since the number of atoms in the reactants equal the number of atoms in the products, the arrow may be replaced with equality sign and written as;

2 H₂ + O₂= 2H₂O

The major steps in writing a balanced equation are;

1. Know all the reactants and products
2. Write a word equation.
3. Write an unbalanced formula equation.
4. Check the number of each type of atom on the left and right sides of the arrow.
5. Write coefficients to balance the formula equation.

Other examples are;

1. When Calcium trioxocarbonate(iv) is heated it decomposes and forms Calcium Oxide and Carbondioxide

CaCO₃ → CaO + CO₂

1. Tin reacts with Oxygen to form Tin oxide

Sn + O₂ → SnO₂

EVALUATION

1. Write the formula for each of the following:
2. Water
3. Zinc chloride
4. Calcium hydroxide
5. Aluminium trioxocarbonate(iv)
6. Write and balance each of the following equations
7. Sodium reacts with chlorine gas to produce Sodium chloride
8. Cl₂ + NaBr → Br₂ + NaCl

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

1. Make a model of the periodic table
2. Write out the chemical equations for and the names of the following;
3. a compound that contains one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms.
4. a compound that contains one atom of Calcium, one atom of Carbon and three atoms of Oxygen.
5. Calculate the total number of atoms in four molecules of water.
6. Balance the following equations
7. Cl₂ + Na → NaCl
8. Cu + H₂SO₄ → CuSO₄ + H₂O + SO₂

READING ASSIGNMENT

Functional Basic Science for JJS Book 3; by Onyirioha, C. U et al. (pgs 70-80)

.

WEEK 4

DATE………………

TOPIC: RESOURCES FROM LIVING THINGS

CONTENT

1. Resources from plants
2. Resources from animals
3. Economic importance of resources to self and society.

RESOURCES FROM LIVING THINGS

Resources are useful things or materials we derive from living things or non-living things. These

living things are plants and animals.

Sub-Topic 1: RESOURCES FROM PLANTS

There are crops that we grow for their leaves, fruits, stems and roots. We can identify four major types of plant resources. These are: food crops, crops for textiles, wood crops, and medicinal plants.

Food Crops

1. Leafy Vegetables: These are plants grown for their leaves. These are either cooked or eaten fresh as salads. They provide us with minerals (calcium and iron) and vitamins (particularly vitamins A and C) which our bodies need. Examples include lettuce, cabbage, bitter leaf, pumpkin leaf,Talinum, and other plants used for ‘leafy soups.
2. Fruits: Examples are peppers, tomatoes, okra, mangoes, bananas, pawpaw, dates, oranges, lemons, pineapples and guavas. They provide the body with mineral salts and vitamins
3. Seeds: Examples of seeds include beans, maize, millet, sorghum, rice, barley, and wheat. We eat many of them as cooked foods. They provide us with starch, fat, and protein. We use barley for brewing beer, and wheat to make flour used in baking bread and cakes. We also use sorghum, and maize to make some local drinks.
4. Underground Crops: These include stem tubers or swollen stems such as yam, cocoyam, and Irish potato; root tubers such as cassava, sweet potato, carrot, radish; and bulbs like onions. They are called underground crops because they grow under the ground. They provide us mainly with starch.

Cassava Yam

1. Oil Plants: These are oil palm, groundnut, cotton, coconut, and olive. We produce cooking oils from their seeds or fruits. The oil is also used for other things like margarine, soap and body cream.

Oil palm Nuts (in bunches)

Coconut

Crops for Textiles

These are crops that we use to make cloth, ropes, baskets, and dyes.

1. Cloth: The fibre produced by cotton plants, found around the seeds is used for making cloth.
2. Ropes: Materials for sacks and nets are made from different kinds of plants like sisal, sorrel plant, guinea-hemp and jute. We also obtain fibres from the Baobab, Bauhinia, and Greutvia.
3. Baskets: Palm leaves provide materials for making hats, bags, baskets, and other things.
4. Dyes: We obtain dyes from many plants e.g. Indigo plant, logwood, weld, safflower, Brazil wood, cola-nuts, etc.

COTTON

Wood Crops

Some trees provide hardwood which is used for buildings and furniture, e.g. Mahogany, Ebony, Iroko, Obeche and Camphor. Some trees provide softwood which is used for wood pulp and paper, as well as for buildings. Also leaves of some plants are used for roofs, fences, and for making furniture. Palm leaves are used for roofing and fencing.

Plants provide us with firewood which is a source of energy.

Medicinal Plants

The bark, roots and leaves of some plants are used as medicines;

1. against many diseases like fever
2. to heal wounds
3. to stop frequent stools
4. to cure indigestion

Examples of such plants include; lemon grass, Neem, Aloe vera, bitter leaf, ginger, etc.

CASH CROPS

These are crops produced mainly for sale, particularly to people in other countries of the world. They include fibre crops, oil crops, and some food crops.

Some very well-known cash crops are; fibre crops, such as cotton; oil crops such as groundnuts and oil palm; wood crops such as mahogany and ebony.

Other cash crops are rubber, coffee, tea, cola, coconut, cocoa, sugar cane, tobacco, beni-seed, and shea-butter.

Cocoa Plant

EVALUATION

1. List four groups of resources obtained from plants.
2. Give three examples from each group and state their uses.
3. Discuss four major cash crops grown in Nigeria.

Sub-Topic 2: RESOURCES FROM ANIMALS

Animals that commonly provide us with food are of three main types;

1. Livestock Animals: This group consists of animals like cows, goats, sheep and pigs. They provide us with meat, milk and butter. In addition, they provide hides and skins which we use for leather goods (bags, shoes, purses, belts, drums, garments). The word ‘hide’ refers to skin of large animals like cattle (also horses and camels); and ‘skin’ refers to the skin of smaller animals like goats, sheep, rabbits, pigs. We use animal bones and horns for furniture, glue, and some other things. Their faeces are used as manure to improve the growth of plants (food crops).

Sheep Pig

Goat

1. Poultry Animals: This group consists of poultry birds – chicken, guinea fowl, duck, goose, pigeon, turkey etc. They provide us with meat and eggs. We also use their feathers in pillows and for decoration. Their droppings are used as manure on farms and garden.

Duck Turkey

Geese

1. Aquatic Animals: The third group consists of animals that live in water; fish, prawns, crayfish and crabs (some crabs also live on land). We use them for food. They provide us with proteins, minerals and vitamins.

Fish Prawn

Crab

Apart from providing us with food, animals also provide other useful things already listed, animals provide glue (from their bones), wool and fur (from their coats) and ivory (from elephants’ tusks) used in making some kinds of furniture.

EVALUATION

1. Enumerate three types of animals and mention the resources they provide for us.
2. Mention other ways by which resources from animals can be used.

SUB-TOPIC 3: ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF RESOURCES TO SELF AND SOCIETY

Plants and animal resources are economically important to man and the society. They are sources of;

1. Food for man and livestock e.g. vegetables, fruits, seeds, tubers, meat, eggs, butter, etc.
2. Raw materials for industries e.g. rubber, cocoa, ginger, groundnut, cotton, Mahogany, etc.
3. Family and national income, that is from the local sale or export of the resources.
4. Manure; which help to replenish soil fertility.
5. Fuel e.g. firewood, charcoal, biogas, etc.
6. Medicine e.g. Penicillin
7. Herbicides etc.

Plant and animal resources can also have harmful/ negative implications on man and his environment. This could arise from;

1. Pollution e.g. stench from refuse dumps and sewage; gases from burning fuels; etc.
2. Contamination of food or water thereby causing ill health in plants and animals.
3. Their being used as biological weapons e.g. Anthrax dust.
4. Over consumption of foodstuff which may cause health problems like obesity, bedwetting, diabetes, heart and circulatory diseases.

EVALUATION

Discuss briefly the economic importance of resources from living things to your society.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

1. (a) Mention five plants and five animals people in your community make use of.
2. In what ways do people use such plants and animals?

READING ASSIGNMENT

Functional Basic Science for JJS Book 3; by Onyirioha, C. U et al. (pgs 81-95)

WEEK 5

DATE………………

TOPIC: RESOURCES FROM NON-LIVING THINGS

CONTENT

1. Soil – Formation/ Composition; Types; Uses.
2. Solid Minerals – Examples; Importance and uses.
3. Distribution of solid minerals in Nigeria.

SUB-TOPIC 1: FORMATION OF SOIL

Soil is formed from rocks over thousands of years through a process known as weathering. Weathering is a chemical, physical, or biological means of breaking down rock into the small particles that eventually make up the soil.

Soil is composed of;

1. The products of weathering which are inorganic in nature. They include stone, gravel, clay, sand, silt. In these particles are minerals such as magnesium, iron, phosphorus etc.
2. Organic materials such as dead plants and animals, parts of plants, and animal waste.
3. Water, air, and soil organisms (e.g. earthworm, termites, bacteria, fungi etc.).

The inorganic particles determine to a large extent the properties of soil type.

TYPES OF SOIL

Soils are composed of a mixture of particles. These particles are sand, silt and clay which all have varying amount of humus. Humus is formed by the action of soil organisms on dead plants and animals as well as on animal wastes. Humus among other functions it performs in the soil helps the inorganic particles of the soil to stick together in crumbs. Therefore, the amount of humus in the soil also determines the properties of a soil type.

There are three major types of soil:

1. Sandy soil: This consists of fine and large particles irregularly arranged. It has a loose structure.
2. Loamy soil: This consists of a small amount of sand and clay particles combined with decaying organic matter formed from plant and animal tissue.
3. Clayey soil: This is made up of very fine particles with very little space in between them.

Properties of Sandy Soil

1. It is very porous.
2. Water drains away quickly.
3. It is coarse and easy to work (e.g. during tillage).
4. Requires fertilizer to grow crops well.

Sandy soil

Properties of Clayey Soil

1. It is a fine-grained and heavy soil.
2. Water drains away poorly. They water log easily.
3. Difficult to work on.
4. Hardens and cracks during dry season.
5. Needs careful management to grow crops.

Clayey soil

Properties of Loamy Soil

1. It is a mixture of sand and clay particles.
2. Has good crumb structure which drains well yet retains sufficient water for crop growth.
3. It has plenty of nutrients and is therefore good for agricultural purposes.

Loamy soil

USES OF SOIL

The importance of soil to man cannot be over-emphasized. Soil is used for;

1. Cultivating crops
2. Grazing of animals (livestock)
3. Building of houses
4. Making pottery (pots, flower vases, artifacts, etc.)
5. Serves as home for soil organisms.
6. Provides materials for building houses.
7. Provides surface for construction of roads, buildings and other activities of man

EVALUATION

1. Mention three components of soil.
2. Name three differences between the three main types of soil.
3. State five uses of soil.

Sub-Topic 2: SOLID MINERALS

Solid minerals are naturally occurring chemical elements or compounds which are found in rocks or in the soil, examples are gold, salt, tin etc.Minerals can exist as solids or non-solids or a combination of both. All rocks are made up of minerals. Rocks which contain a high concentration of the mineral of a particular metal, from which it can be profitably mined is called the ore of that metal e.g. iron ore, copper ore, etc.

Solid minerals have been found deposited in some parts of Nigeria in commercial quantities and they are of valuable use to man. Due to their importance, the federal government established the Ministry of Solid Minerals to handle all matters concerning solid minerals.

Man utilizes some of these minerals in their natural/crude form while some of them have been combined with other materials i.e. processed to form products which are useful to man.

There are about 34 minerals resources found in Nigeria. They include columbite, gold, zinc, diamond, gypsum, limestone, tin, copper, etc.

Scientific study of minerals is called mineralogy and the scientist who studies mineralogy is called a mineralogist.

Below is a table showing some mineral resources found in Nigeria, their location and uses.

Table Showing Mineral Resources Found In Nigeria and Their Uses

EVALUATION

1. What is a solid mineral?
2. Name five solid minerals found in Nigeria and state two uses/importance of each.

Sub-Topic 3: DISTRIBUTION OF SOLID MINERALS IN NIGERIA

The map below shows the distribution of some important solid minerals in Nigeria.

KEY TO SYMBOLS

EVALUATION

Nigeria is divided into six geo-political zones. Mention three solid minerals found in your zone

and state their locations.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

1. In which soil type would you expect a plant to grow best and why?
2. Draw a map of Nigeria and insert the locations of the minerals discussed in class.

READING ASSIGNMENT

Functional Basic Science for JJS Book 3; by Onyirioha, C. U et al. (Pgs 96-107)

WEEK 6

Topic: SKILL ACQUISTION

CONTENT:

1. Meaning of Skill Acquisition.
2. Reasons for Skill Acquisition
3. Types of Skills
4. Importance of skill acquisition, improve quality of life, appreciate human capabilities.

TOPIC: SKILL ACQUISTION

Skill is the ability to do something well. Skills that can be acquired to earn a living include: knowledge of computer operations, hairdressing, tailoring, auto repair, pottery, bread making, etc.

Sub –Topic1: Meaning of Skill Acquisition

Skill acquisition is the art of learning to do something in order to earn a living and or to

Survive. There are different types of professional e.g. Fine artists, mechanics,

Potter, vulcanizes, from whom one can learn trades in order to earn a living.

Learning to read and write is a skill you acquire at school. Therefore, skill acquisition

Involves learning to do something well. It helps to improve quality of life and appreciate

human capability.

Reasons for Skill Acquisition

There are many reasons why one will want to acquire a skill. Some of these may include:

1. Taking risks
2. Decision Making.
3. Managing emergency situation
4. Survival strategy
5. Leaning to live together.

Sub-Topic2: Types of skills

There are different types of skills. Skills are learnt in:

1. Farming: This is the skill acquired for crop and animal husbandry. People farm in order to survive. Crop husbandry involves planting crops such as maize, cassava, yam, plantain, etc. Animal husbandry involves fish farming, poultry farming, snail farming, etc.

2. Basic computer literacy: learning to operate a computer is a skill.

3. Photography: This is the art, process or job of taking photographs or filming an object by

different types of camera

4. Internet browsing- e-mail operation: Internet browsing is the act of looking for information

On the internet using a computer. E-mail is electronic mailing system. It is a fast means of

Sending and receiving mails on the Internet through a computer

5. Fax (facsimile): Fax machine short form for facsimile machine is a device that can send or

receive pictures and text over a telephone line.

A MODERN FAX MACHINE

1. Desktop publishing and networking

Importance of skill acquisition

Skills enable us to;

1. Secure employment;
2. Improve our quality of life;
3. Enjoy our lives, e.g. photography, soccer;
4. Save lives, e.g. first aid;
5. Provide services to other people, e.g. carpentry, welding;
6. Communicate with other people, e.g. computer literacy; and
7. Improve our knowledge.

Evaluation

1. Explain what is meant by skill acquisition.
2. Give two reasons why we need to acquire skills.
3. List three types of skills.

Weekend Assignment:

1. What is skill?
2. List any 3 skills you may wish to acquire in your order of preference and state why.

Week 7:

Topic: ETHICAL ISSUES IN SCIENCE AND DEVELOPMENT

CONTENT:

1. Meaning of right and wrong application of science.
2. Implications of the application of science to the development of the society.

Introduction:

Science is the study of structure and behavior of the physical and natural world and phenomenon through a systematic observation and experiment. This study has opened and widened the knowledge and capacity of man beyond his imagination.

Sub-Topic1: Meaning of Right and Wrong Applications of Science

THE RIGHT APPLICATIONS OF SCIENCE

The application of any knowledge gained from science that will directly or

Indirectly benefit mankind is described as the right application. There are many applications of science that have benefited mankind in all areas of his existences. Some of these applications are in the areas of:

1. Health and medicine: Through the scientific study of human health, science has discovered and produced drugs for the cure of many diseases. Some of the deadly diseases that caused death of men, women and children in the olden days like smallpox, malaria, tetanus, etc.

2. Transportation: in the olden days, before the great advances in science, people trekked from one place to another carrying heavy load on their heads. With the invention of bicycles, cars, Lorries, ships, aero planes, etc., transportation of goods and services has become easier, faster and more comfortable.

OLD MEANS OF TRANSPORTATION

MODERN TRANSPORTATION METHODS

3. Agriculture: food is now produced in very large quantities with minimal lab our through the use of modern farming equipment like tractors, ridgers, combine harvesters, etc. the yield of crops per given area has tremendously increased through the use of scientifically improved seedlings and seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, etc.

4. Communication: Scientific advances have greatly improved the ease and speed of communication. Transfer of information between people separated by wide distance is achieved through the use of telephone, GSM, internet, etc.

5. Security: as a result of scientific inventions, human lives and properties have become more secure than in the olden days. Scientific equipment like smoke detector, weather satellite, seismic detectors, etc. , can give us advance warning of impending dangers like fire, hurricane, drought, earthquake, volcanic eruptions, etc. this will enable us act on time to stop the danger or reduce its effect. With scientific equipment, we can defend ourselves against attacks from dangerous animals and from fellow human beings.

Sub-Topic 2: Wrong applications of science

When science is wrongly applied, it causes problems, miseries, destructions and even deaths. Individuals and nations should take care on how science is applied. Its wrong application has far reaching devastating consequences.

Wrong applications of science are:

1. Health and medicine: the manufacture and release into the market of fake and substandard drugs have led to loss of many lives. Some medicines become poison when wrongly taken hence; many drugs carry the label ‘keep out of reach of children’.
2. Transportation: Roads accidents occur due to poor maintenance of roads and vehicles.

air disasters also occur due to poor maintenance and ageing of aircrafts. This mishaps lead to loss of lives and property.

1. Agriculture: Some of the chemicals used in agriculture like pesticides are poisonous.

When they are washed into rivers and streams they poison the water and destroy aquatic lives.

Sprayer

1. Communication: through the use of internet, computer, phone, etc. fraud and

Pornography, terrorism, and other criminal activities are easily and rapidly carried out.

1. Security: mankind can be wiped off the earth at the press of a button. This is what

the discovery of atomic energy and manufacture of atomic brought about by the use of

biological warfare weapons such as the release of anthrax dust into the atmosphere. Its

effects are far reaching.

IMPLICATIONS OF SCIENCE TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SOCIETY

Science has both positive and negative implications to the development of the society. The usefulness of science to the society and the danger it poses depends on the person using or manipulating it and the use to which it is put.

The results of science include chemical, biological and nuclear weapons, which are some of the most destructive weapons that have ever been made in the world.

Evaluation

1. List 3 good scientific practices.
2. Mention three bad scientific practices.
3. What are the reasons for good and bad scientific practices?

Weekend Assignment

1. State 2 ways science can contribute to national development
2. Do you know that one careless action you may take can affect the well-being of others and your physical environment? State 2 practical things you can do personally to show that you care for the welfare of others.

Week 8: Light Energy

CONTENT: 1.Review of the concepts of (I) reflection (ii) refraction of light

1. Apparent depth and its dangers to swimmers.
2. Vision
3. Dispersion and rainbow.

TOPIC: Light Energy

Light is a form of energy. It enables us to see things when it is reflected from objects into

our eyes.

Sub-Topic1: Review of the concepts of reflection

Reflection is the sending back of rays of light after striking a reflecting surface. Reflection from a surface depends on how smooth or rough the surface is. A reflection from a smooth surface like a mirror is regular while that from rough surfaces like walls and stones is irregular or diffuse.

There are two basic laws of reflection. These are:

1. The incident ray, the normal ray and the reflected ray at the point of incidence, all lie on the same plane.
2. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection

APPLICATIONS OF REFLECTION IN SOME OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

For example:

1. The plane mirror is used as a dressing mirror because it shows a reflection of our image.
2. The simple periscope contains two plane mirrors facing each other, and inclined at an angle of 45⁰ to the horizontal. It is used to view beyond obstacles e.g. in submarines, simple periscopes are used to view ships on the ocean.
3. The sextant: this is used for finding the angle of elevation of the sun; it also consists of two mirrors.
4. The kaleidoscope: This is used for producing different color patters when turned. It makes use of plane mirrors inclined at 60⁰ to each other.

Sub-Topic 2: Refraction of light

The change in direction of light as it passes from one medium to another is known as refraction. For instance, light which bounces back from an object that is placed underwater travels first through water and then the air, before it gets to the eyes of the observer? At some angles, the object partially submerged will appear to bend where it enters the water; this is because light from that part underwater is refracted.

Light always travels at different speeds through different materials, hence it changes speed at the boundary between two materials. When a beam of light falls on boundary at an angle, light on the side of the beam which gets there first, is fired to speed up or slow down, after which the light from the other side’s touches the new materials. It makes the beam to bend or be refracted at the boundary.

Apparent Depth

The concept of apparent depth can be explained through the phenomenon of refraction.

When a coin is dropped into a cup of water and of water and viewed directly from above, it appears to be nearer the water surface.

The distance between the level where the coins is and the surface of the water is the real depth; while the distance between the level where the coin appears to be and the surface of the water is the apparent depth. Other areas where we have apparent depth include:

1. The depth of a swimming pool always appears shallower than it is in reality. This could be dangerous to a swimmer who would think that the pool is not deep and could get drowned if he is not a good swimmer.
2. A thick glass slab e.g. a rectangular glass block, appears not to be as thick as it actually is, when viewed directly from above.

Sub-Topic 3: VISION

Vision is the ability to see. The eye is the organ with which we see.

The eye consists of the following parts:

1. Eye lens: The eye lens is used for focusing light entering the eye onto the retina. It produces real but inverted images of objects on the retina.
2. Retina: This is the light sensitive area at the back of the eye where inverted images are formed. The optical nerves begin at the retina.

The working of the eye

1. Cornea: this is the tick protective transparent layer in front of the eye. It begins the refraction of light entering the eye.
2. The pupil: This is a circular opening (hole) in the eye which permits light to enter the eye. In dim light, the opening increases to allow more light to enter but in bright, the opening decreases to reduce the amount of light entering the eye.
3. Iris: this is the colored circular part in front of the eye lens. it controls or regulates the amount of light entering the eye by increasing or decreasing the size of the pupil.
4. Ciliary muscles: These are attached to the eye lens and are used to vary its thickness and consequently its focal length. This enables the eye to focus objects at different distances on the retina.
5. The optic nerves: The optic nerves transmit light impulses from the retina to the brain for interpretation.
6. The aqueous humour: This is a transparent liquid between the eye lens and cornea. It helps in the refraction of light.
7. The vitreous humour: This is a transparent jelly – like liquid between the eye lens and

the retina. It also helps in refraction of light and in maintaining the shape of the eye.

DISPERSION OF LIGHT

Dispersion of light is the seperation of white light into its component colours.

White light comprises seven different colours, these colours are Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo and Violet. It can be easily remebered by forming an acronym with the first letter of each colour (ROYGBIV). It is in these order it appear when separated.

The seven colours of ROYGBIV are known as the spectrum of white light. When white light travels from air or vacuum into a denser medium, the speed of its component colors varies. This results in dispersion i.e. separation of component colours of white light. Dispersion of white light can be obtained by shinning a beam of white light throught a triangular prism before a white screen.

DISPERSION AND RINBOW

When sunlight rays get into a raindrops, the light bends or refracts in a manner to form the spectrum of colors. The red light is refracted the least and violet light is refracted the most.All other colors fall in between the red and violet colors thereby forming the rainbow.

Rainbow formation

Evaluation

1. Explain reflection and refraction.
2. What is meant by apparent depth?
3. What is the danger of apparent depth to swimmers?

Weekend Assignment

1. How would you explain the process of seeing an object?
2. Draw and label the eye.

Week 9

TOPIC: Magnetism

CONTENTS:

i. meaning of magnet

ii. Loadstone

1. Laws of Magnetism
2. Magnetic poles and magnetic fields
3. Care for magnets

Sub-Topic 1: Meaning of magnet

When a magnet is put in a container filled with office pins or needles, by the time you bring the magnet out of the container; most of the pins or needles would have clung to it.

It shows that a magnet can attract needles and some other materials like cobalt, nickel, iron etc.

All the materials which can be attracted by magnet are called magnetic materials. The ability of a magnet to attract magnetic materials is called magnetism.

A magnet

Lodestone

Lodestone also called magnetite is a black oxide of iron ore (Fe₃0₄).it has the ability to attract small pieces of iron and other pieces of magnetic materials. It is the original magnet,and large deposits of this substance were first discovered in Magnesia, in Asia, from where the name magnet was formed.

Law of magnetism

The law of magnetism states that like poles of a magnet repel each other, while unlike poles attracts each other.

It implies that north and south poles of a magnet attract each other while the north pole of a magnet repels the north pole of another magnet. Similarly, the south pole of a magnet repels the south pole of another magnet.

Sub-Topic2: Magnetic poles and magnetic fields

If a bar magnet is tied in the middle and suspended in the air, when the bar magnet is made to swig freely, after some time it comes to rest in the north- south direction. If there is attraction, then the pole of the magnet beside the north-seeking pole of the standard magnet is the south-seeking pole.

Poles of a magnet

Magnetic Field

Magnetic fieid refers to the region around a magnet where the effects of the force due to the magnet can be felt by magnetic materials.

Magnetic materials are substances that can be attracted by magnets e.g.iron, steel, nickel, cobalt and certain alloys of iron. Maginets do not attract non-magnetic materials.Examples of non – magnetic materials include: rubber, glass, wood, etc.

A magnet has the ability to attract magnetic materials to itself over a distance with no contact between them. Therefore, the space around a magnet where this attraction is possible is the magnetic field. The magnet field around a magnet is made up of fild lnes.

MAGNETIC FIELD

Care of magnets

1. Magnets should not be allowed to drop from a height onto a hard surface. This can weaken their magnetic properties.
2. Magnets should not be hammered. This can also weaken its quality.
3. Heating to a high temperature removes the magnetic qualities of permanent magnets and spoils the steel.
4. Magnets should be stored away properly after use.

Evaluation

1. (a) Describe the lodestone.

(b) Mention any 2 qualities of lodestone.

1. (a) What is magnetic force?

(b) State the law of magnetism.

(c) List two methods of caring for a magnet.

Weekend Assignment

Explain how to show the magnetic fields around a magnet.

Week 10. Revision

Week 11. Examination

Week 12. Examination

BASIC SCIENCE TEXT BOOKS:

1. Functional Basic Science for JJS Book 3; by Onyirioha, C. U et al.

NAME:——————————————————-CLASS———————–

DEEPER LIFE HIGH SCHOOL

SECOND TERM E-LEARNING NOTES

JS 3 (BASIC 9)

SUBJECT: BASIC SCIENCE

SCHEME OF WORK FOR SECOND TERM

WEEK TOPIC

1. Revision of first term’s work
2. Non-Living Things – Atomic Structure; Elements; Compounds; Mixtures
3. Chemical Symbols, Formulae and Equations.
4. Resources from Living Things; Plant resources ; Animal resources
5. Resources from Non- Living things; Soil; Solid minerals
6. Skill Acquisition
7. Ethical Issues in science and Development
8. Light Energy
9. Magnetism
10. Revision
11. Examination

WEEK 1:

Activity: REVISION OF FIRST TERMS WORK

WEEK 2

DATE………………

TOPIC: ATOMIC STRUCTURE

CONTENT

1. Meaning of Atom; Concept of Electrons, Protons and Neutrons
2. Simple atomic model; Properties of atoms
3. Concept of Elements, Molecules, Compounds and Mixtures

Sub-Topic 1: Meaning of Atom; Concept of Electrons, Protons and Neutrons

MEANING OF ATOM

Matter (solid, liquid or gas) is made up of tiny particles called atoms.

An atom is the smallest particle of matter which can take part in a chemical reaction.

An English Chemist called John Dalton (1766 – 1844) put forward some statements about the atom in1803 and 1808 which are referred to as Dalton’s atomic theory. These helped to explain some observations about the structure and behavior of atoms. However with advancement in science and the contribution of more scientists like J.J Thomson in 1897, Robert Millikan in1909-1916 and Earnest Rutherford in 1911, the theory has been modified. Presently, scientists agree that:

1. An atom is made up of a number of small particles namely, the electron, the proton and the neutron. None of these can exist on its own naturally.
2. An atom is the smallest particle of matter that can take part in a chemical reaction.
3. In nuclear reactions atoms can be created or destroyed.
4. Some atoms of the same element have different masses for example in those elements that have isotopes.
5. Most inorganic compounds are formed by the joining of atoms of two or more elements in a definite whole number ratio, but for large organic molecules such as proteins, fats and starches which involve the joining of thousands of atoms, this theory does not hold.

CONCEPT OF ELECTRONS, PROTONS AND NEUTRONS

An atom is made up of three fundamental particles; the electrons, protons and neutrons. Structurally, an atom consists of a small dense, centrally placed nucleus which is surrounded by electrons. The nucleus is made up of the protons and the neutrons. The protons and neutrons are collectively called the nucleons. Most of the atom is empty space. Most of the mass is concentrated in the nucleus.

ELECTRONS: These are tiny particles situated at a comparatively great distance from the centre of the atom. They travel rapidly and continuously in orbits around the nucleus. An electron has a negative charge and a very negligible mass of about 9.1 × 10^-28g, this is about 1800 times lighter than the hydrogen atom.

PROTONS: These are tiny, positively charged particles found in the nucleus of an atom. The positive charge is equal in magnitude to the negative charge on the electron. Thus, an atom with the same number of electrons and protons is electrically neutral. The mass of the proton is 1 × 10^-24g, which is about 1800 times larger than that of the electron.

NEUTRONS: These are tiny particles found in the nucleus of an atom. They have no electric charge i.e. they are neutral. Neutrons have about the same mass as a proton.

EVALUATION

1. What is an atom?
2. Name the fundamental particles of an atom
3. State the charges on these particles and their relative masses.
4. Who was the first chemist to propound theories about atoms?

Sub-Topic 2: SIMPLE ATOMIC MODEL

Ernest Rutherford in 1909 proposed a model of the atom. His model showed a small dense, positively charged nucleus surrounded by relatively empty space and electrons continuously orbiting the nucleus at a great distance from it. However in the light of further experimental results, other models of the atom have been proposed.

The electrons occupy different orbits or shells called K,L,M,N, shells or 1,2,3,4, shells round the nucleus. These shells may also have sub shells designated s, p d, subshells.

Examples are;

(i) Hydrogen

Electron on K shell

Nucleus

(ii) Sodium

M shell

L shell

K shell

STRUCTURE OF MATTER

Structure of Matter

Modern physics has revealed successively deeper layers of structure in ordinary matter. Matter is composed, on a tiny scale, of particles called atoms. Atoms are in turn made up of minuscule nuclei surrounded by a cloud of particles called electrons. Nuclei are composed of particles called protons and neutrons, which are themselves made up of even smaller particles called quarks. Quarks are believed to be fundamental, meaning that they cannot be broken up into smaller particle.

PROPERTIES OF ATOMS

Atoms have several properties that help distinguish one type of atom from another and determine how atoms change under certain conditions. These properties include;

1. The Atomic number: The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is called its atomic number (Z). All atoms of the same element have the same number of protons and so have the same atomic number. Atoms are normally electrically neutral so the atomic number also shows how many electrons an atom has. However, an atom may lose or gain an electron to become a charged particle called an ion. When an atom loses an electron it forms a positively charged ion called a cation. When an atom gains an electron it forms a negatively charged ion called an anion. The number of electrons thus determines many of the chemical and physical properties of an atom.
2. The Mass number: The sum of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is called the mass number of the atom (A). The number of neutrons is denoted by N.

The relationship between the number of neutrons and protons is given by; A=Z – N

1. The Atomic Mass and Weight: Scientists use a device called a mass spectrometer to measure atomic mass. The mass of an atom is measured in terms of a unit called the atomic mass unit (amu). An amu is defined as exactly 1/12 the mass of an atom of carbon with six protons and six electrons.

An element’s atomic weight represents the mass of one mole of its atoms. A mole is the mass of a very large number of atoms. A mole of atoms of any element contains 6.02 × 10²³ atoms. This is also called the molar mass.

1. Isotopes: Atoms of the same element that differ in mass number (A) are called isotopes. They have the same atomic number (Z). These elements have the same number of protons in their nucleus but different numbers of neutrons. For example, hydrogen has three isotopes ¹H; ²H; ³H called Protium, Deuterium and Tritium respectively.

HYDROGEN ISOTOPES

EVALUATION

1. Draw a simple atomic model of Helium atom with two electrons, two protons and two neutrons.
2. Briefly describe the three types of hydrogen atoms that exist.
3. Write the (a) mass number (b) atomic number of Sodium atom.

Sub-Topic 3: Concept of Elements, Molecules, Compounds and Mixtures

ELEMENT: A substance that is made up of only one type of atoms is called an element. An element cannot be broken down into anything else. Examples are magnesium, copper, zinc, gold, iron, oxygen, carbon, chlorine, etc.

MOLECULE: The smallest unit of a substance which can exist on its own and retain the properties of the substance is called a molecule. A molecule may be made up of one atom only e.g. Argon (Ar) or a combination of atoms e.g. Oxygen (O₂).

COMPOUND: A substance formed by the chemical combination of the atoms of different elements is a compound. Examples are Sodium chloride (salt), water, kaolin, carbon (iv), oxide, sand, etc.

MIXTURE: A substance formed when elements or compounds are mixed without any chemical reaction occurring is called a mixture. Examples are crude oil, soil, cup of tea, air, palm oil, solution of salt and water, etc. The components of a mixture can be separated by physical means like evaporation, magnetization, filtration, Sublimation, etc.

PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES

1. ELEMENTS:

(a) Chemical Properties:

1. Some elements are very reactive e.g. Sodium, Potassium, Chlorine, Oxygen, etc. Sodium metal readily gets ignited on exposure to air.
2. Some elements are moderately reactive e.g. when iron is exposed to moist air it gradually begins to rust.
3. Some elements are virtually unreactive e.g. Gold does not rust when exposed to moisture.

(b) Physical Properties

(i) Some elements have light density e.g. Hydrogen gas while some are heavy e.g.

Gold, Lead, etc.

(ii) Some elements are colourless e.g. Oxygen, Hydrogen and Nitrogen while some are

coloured e.g. Chlorine, Bromine, etc.

1. Solid, non-metallic elements are brittle and have a dull surface e.g. Phosphorus and Sulphur while the metallic elements are malleable and have a shiny surface e.g. Iron and Aluminium
2. All metals exist as solids at room temperature except Mercury which is a liquid.
3. COMPOUNDS:

(a) Physical Properties:

1. Most compounds formed from the chemical combination of metals and non-metals are soluble in water but not in organic solvents like kerosene.
2. Compounds formed from the chemical combination of non-metals are soluble in organic solvents like kerosene and petrol.
3. Compounds have definite melting and boiling points.

(b) Chemical Properties

(i) Some chemicals react chemically with acids to form a new compound e.g. sodium

hydroxide and hydrochloric acid react chemically to form sodium chloride and

water.

(ii) Some compounds decompose on heating e.g. calcium trioxocarbonate (iv) on

heating produces calcium oxide and carbon (iv) oxide.

1. MIXTURES: Physical Properties:
2. Mixtures can be separated by physical means.
3. Mixtures do not have definite boiling or melting points.
4. The colour of individual constituents is visible.

USES OF SOME ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES

USES OF ELEMENTS

(a) Gold is used in making jewelry and coins. It is also used in art work and dentistry. Radioisotopes of gold are used in biological research and in treatment of cancer.

(b) Iron is used for production of galvanized sheet metal and electromagnets. Iron compounds are used for medicinal purposes in the treatment of anemia and also in tonics.

USES OF COMPOUNDS

(a) Kaolin is used in the manufacture of fine porcelain and china ware; pottery, stoneware and bricks; as a filler for pigments and manufacture of paper.

(b) Salt is used as a seasoning; as preservative for meats; in dyeing and in manufacture of soap and glass. Table salt is combined with small quantities of iodide to prevent occurrence of goiter. Industrially salt is a source of chlorine and sodium. Chlorine is used in manufacture of hydrochloric acid, chloroform and bleaching powder. Sodium is used for sodium carbonate, baking soda and sodium hydroxide.

USES OF MIXTURES

(a) Crude oil is used as fuel (petrol, kerosene, diesel, gas, etc.) and raw material in the chemical industry. Derivatives are used in manufacture of medicine, fertilizers, plastics, paints, building materials and for generating electricity.

(b) Coal is used as fuel. It is used by electric power plants to produce electricity. Industrially it can be converted to coke and mixed with iron ore and limestone to produce iron. The coal gases given off during the process of coke formation are used to manufacture solvents, fertilizers, medicine, pesticides, etc.

EVALUATION

1. Define the following terms and give two examples of each (a) element (b) molecule (c) compound (d) mixture
2. Mention two things each example can be used for.
3. Enumerate three differences between elements, compounds and mixtures

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

1. Complete the missing information below

1. Air is a mixture of gases, mention three of the gases and state two uses of each
2. Collect twelve (12) materials from your environment and classify them into elements, compounds and mixtures.

READING ASSIGNMENT

Functional Basic Science for JJS Book 3; by Onyirioha, C. U et al. (pgs 70-80)

WEEK 3

DATE………………

TOPIC: CHEMICAL SYMBOLS, FORMULAE AND EQUATIONS

CONTENT

1. Meaning of chemical symbols;Groups of chemical symbols
2. Chemical Formulae and Equations

Sub-Topic 1: MEANING OF CHEMICAL SYMBOLS

A chemical symbol is an abbreviated form of the name of an element. It represents one atom of the element.

GROUPS OF CHEMICAL SYMBOLS

There are four groups of symbols namely;

1. Symbols which are the first letter of the name of the element. These symbols are written in capital letters.

1. Symbols which are the first two letters in the name of the element. The first letter of the symbol is a capital letter while the second letter is a small letter.

1. Symbols which are the first letter and another letter in the name of the element.

1. Symbols of elements derived from the Latin name of the element.

CONCEPT OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

The most important classification of chemical substances is the arrangement of the elements in the Periodic Table/Chart. A Russian scientist called Mendeleev (1869) was the first to construct a periodic table. He arranged elements in order of increasing relative atomic mass. However, scientists have discovered that elements vary regularly with their atomic number. Each element in the periodic table is represented by a chemical symbol which makes it easy to identify them. Elements that share a column in the table have similar properties. The first twenty elements in the periodic table are;

1. Hydrogen
2. Helium
3. Lithium
4. Beryllium
5. Boron
6. Carbon
7. Nitrogen
8. Oxygen
9. Fluorine
10. Neon
11. Sodium
12. Magnesium
13. Aluminum
14. Silicon
15. Phosphorus
16. Sulphur
17. Chlorine
18. Argon
19. Potassium
20. Calcium

EVALUATION

1. What is a chemical symbol?
2. Enumerate the four groups of chemical symbols and give three examples of each.

1. The periodic table shows the classification of elements in what order?
2. Mention the first twenty elements in the periodic table.

Sub-Topic 2: CHEMICAL FORMULAE AND EQUATIONS

CHEMICAL FORMULAE: A chemical formula is the representation of a substance using symbols and numbers. A chemical formula represents a molecule of a substance(an element or compound) and gives information about the types of atoms present in the substance and their number/proportion.

Every element and every compound has itsown formula e.g. the chemical formula for one molecule of water is H₂O. This means that one molecule of water consists of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen.

Other examples are;

Chemical formulae are written in a particular way to obey certain rules. Each element in the substance is written in capital letter and its proportion/number in the substance is written as a subscript. A subscript applies to the symbol before it e.g. in the formula NH_3, the subscript(3) refers to H(hydrogen) only.

Combining Powers (Valency) of Elements

When atoms of different elements combine during a chemical reaction, the atom that loses electrons becomes positively charged (cation). The atoms that gain electrons become negatively charged (anion). The number of electrons lost or gained by an atom is it’s combining power/ valency. This is in order to attain the nearest noble gas electronic configuration that is, a neutral state.

Metals show positively charged combining power. Non-metals such as chlorine have negative combining power. However, some elements exhibit more than one type of combining power.

Examples;

To write the chemical formula of an ionic compound superscripts are used for the ions, this makes the total positive charges equal the total negative charges. For example Sodium chloride is formed from a combination of a positively charged Sodium ion, Na⁺ and a negatively charged Chlorine ion, Cl^– , thus the chemical formula of Sodium chloride is Na⁺Cl^– simply written as NaCl. Other examples are;

1. Magnesium Sulphide Mg²⁺S^– (MgS)
2. Magnesium Chloride Mg²⁺Cl^– (MgCl)
3. Sodium Sulphide Na⁺S^2-(Na₂S)
4. Aluminium Sulphide Al³⁺S^2- (Al₂S₃)

A group of atoms carrying either positive or negative charge is called a radical(polyatomic ions)e.g. SO₄^2-, OH^–, NO₃^–. The combining powers of such radicals are the net number of positive or negative charges they carry. The chemical formula for such polyatomic ions is written in brackets and the superscript/subscript is placed outside the bracket. Examples;

1. Trioxonitrate (v) ion (NO₃)^–
2. Tetraoxosulphate (vi) ion (SO₄)^2-
3. Trioxocarbonate (iv) ion (CO₃)^2-
4. Sodium trioxonitrate (v) Na⁺NO₃^–= NaNO3
5. Aluminium tetraoxosulphate(vi) Al³⁺⁽SO₄)^2- =Al₂(SO₄)₃

CHEMICAL EQUATIONS: A chemical equation is a condensed statement of facts about a chemical reaction. A chemical reaction takes place whenever a substance undergoes chemical change. A chemical equation is thus used to represent the changes in bonding and changes in energy that take place in the reaction.

Chemical reactions involve reactants and products. The reactants are the substances that existed before the chemical reaction took place. The products are the substances formed as a result of the reaction. For example, hydrogen gas reacts with oxygen gas to produce water (liquid). This statement can be written as;

Hydrogen gas + Oxygen gas → Water

The reactants which are hydrogen gas and oxygen gas are written on the left of the arrow while the product which is water is written on the right of the arrow. This statement can be written with chemical formulae thus;

H_{2 (g)} + O_{2 (g)} → H₂O _(l)

During a chemical reaction atoms may be re-arranged to form new substances but they are never created or destroyed. The equation above is referred to as an unbalanced equation this is because the number of Oxygen atoms on the right is not the same as the number on the left. To balance chemical equations coefficients are used. A coefficient is a number written in front of a formula to balance the equation. Coefficients indicate the smallest number of molecules of a substance that may take part in a reaction. So to balance the equation above a coefficient of 2 is introduced;

2 H₂ + O₂ → 2H₂O

The balanced equation reads, two molecules of hydrogen react with one molecule of oxygen to produce two molecules of water. The coefficient multiplies all the atoms in the reaction so; four atoms of Hydrogen react with two atoms of Oxygen to produce four atoms of Hydrogen and two atoms of Oxygen, a balanced reaction. Since the number of atoms in the reactants equal the number of atoms in the products, the arrow may be replaced with equality sign and written as;

2 H₂ + O₂= 2H₂O

The major steps in writing a balanced equation are;

1. Know all the reactants and products
2. Write a word equation.
3. Write an unbalanced formula equation.
4. Check the number of each type of atom on the left and right sides of the arrow.
5. Write coefficients to balance the formula equation.

Other examples are;

1. When Calcium trioxocarbonate(iv) is heated it decomposes and forms Calcium Oxide and Carbondioxide

CaCO₃ → CaO + CO₂

1. Tin reacts with Oxygen to form Tin oxide

Sn + O₂ → SnO₂

EVALUATION

1. Write the formula for each of the following:
2. Water
3. Zinc chloride
4. Calcium hydroxide
5. Aluminium trioxocarbonate(iv)
6. Write and balance each of the following equations
7. Sodium reacts with chlorine gas to produce Sodium chloride
8. Cl₂ + NaBr → Br₂ + NaCl

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

1. Make a model of the periodic table
2. Write out the chemical equations for and the names of the following;
3. a compound that contains one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms.
4. a compound that contains one atom of Calcium, one atom of Carbon and three atoms of Oxygen.
5. Calculate the total number of atoms in four molecules of water.
6. Balance the following equations
7. Cl₂ + Na → NaCl
8. Cu + H₂SO₄ → CuSO₄ + H₂O + SO₂

READING ASSIGNMENT

Functional Basic Science for JJS Book 3; by Onyirioha, C. U et al. (pgs 70-80)

.

WEEK 4

DATE………………

TOPIC: RESOURCES FROM LIVING THINGS

CONTENT

1. Resources from plants
2. Resources from animals
3. Economic importance of resources to self and society.

RESOURCES FROM LIVING THINGS

Resources are useful things or materials we derive from living things or non-living things. These

living things are plants and animals.

Sub-Topic 1: RESOURCES FROM PLANTS

There are crops that we grow for their leaves, fruits, stems and roots. We can identify four major types of plant resources. These are: food crops, crops for textiles, wood crops, and medicinal plants.

Food Crops

1. Leafy Vegetables: These are plants grown for their leaves. These are either cooked or eaten fresh as salads. They provide us with minerals (calcium and iron) and vitamins (particularly vitamins A and C) which our bodies need. Examples include lettuce, cabbage, bitter leaf, pumpkin leaf,Talinum, and other plants used for ‘leafy soups.

1. Fruits: Examples are peppers, tomatoes, okra, mangoes, bananas, pawpaw, dates, oranges, lemons, pineapples and guavas. They provide the body with mineral salts and vitamins.

1. Seeds: Examples of seeds include beans, maize, millet, sorghum, rice, barley, and wheat. We eat many of them as cooked foods. They provide us with starch, fat, and protein. We use barley for brewing beer, and wheat to make flour used in baking bread and cakes. We also use sorghum, and maize to make some local drinks.

1. Underground Crops: These include stem tubers or swollen stems such as yam, cocoyam, and Irish potato; root tubers such as cassava, sweet potato, carrot, radish; and bulbs like onions. They are called underground crops because they grow under the ground. They provide us mainly with starch.

Cassava Yam

1. Oil Plants: These are oil palm, groundnut, cotton, coconut, and olive. We produce cooking oils from their seeds or fruits. The oil is also used for other things like margarine, soap and body cream.

Oil palm Nuts (in bunches)

Coconut

Crops for Textiles

These are crops that we use to make cloth, ropes, baskets, and dyes.

1. Cloth: The fibre produced by cotton plants, found around the seeds is used for making cloth.
2. Ropes: Materials for sacks and nets are made from different kinds of plants like sisal, sorrel plant, guinea-hemp and jute. We also obtain fibres from the Baobab, Bauhinia, and Greutvia.
3. Baskets: Palm leaves provide materials for making hats, bags, baskets, and other things.
4. Dyes: We obtain dyes from many plants e.g. Indigo plant, logwood, weld, safflower, Brazil wood, cola-nuts, etc.

COTTON

Wood Crops

Some trees provide hardwood which is used for buildings and furniture, e.g. Mahogany, Ebony, Iroko, Obeche and Camphor. Some trees provide softwood which is used for wood pulp and paper, as well as for buildings. Also leaves of some plants are used for roofs, fences, and for making furniture. Palm leaves are used for roofing and fencing.

Plants provide us with firewood which is a source of energy.

Medicinal Plants

The bark, roots and leaves of some plants are used as medicines;

1. against many diseases like fever
2. to heal wounds
3. to stop frequent stools
4. to cure indigestion

Examples of such plants include; lemon grass, Neem, Aloe vera, bitter leaf, ginger, etc.

CASH CROPS

These are crops produced mainly for sale, particularly to people in other countries of the world. They include fibre crops, oil crops, and some food crops.

Some very well-known cash crops are; fibre crops, such as cotton; oil crops such as groundnuts and oil palm; wood crops such as mahogany and ebony.

Other cash crops are rubber, coffee, tea, cola, coconut, cocoa, sugar cane, tobacco, beni-seed, and shea-butter.

Cocoa Plant

EVALUATION

1. List four groups of resources obtained from plants.
2. Give three examples from each group and state their uses.
3. Discuss four major cash crops grown in Nigeria.

Sub-Topic 2: RESOURCES FROM ANIMALS

Animals that commonly provide us with food are of three main types;

1. Livestock Animals: This group consists of animals like cows, goats, sheep and pigs. They provide us with meat, milk and butter. In addition, they provide hides and skins which we use for leather goods (bags, shoes, purses, belts, drums, garments). The word ‘hide’ refers to skin of large animals like cattle (also horses and camels); and ‘skin’ refers to the skin of smaller animals like goats, sheep, rabbits, pigs. We use animal bones and horns for furniture, glue, and some other things. Their faeces are used as manure to improve the growth of plants (food crops).

Sheep Pig

Goat

1. Poultry Animals: This group consists of poultry birds – chicken, guinea fowl, duck, goose, pigeon, turkey etc. They provide us with meat and eggs. We also use their feathers in pillows and for decoration. Their droppings are used as manure on farms and garden.

Duck Turkey

Geese

1. Aquatic Animals: The third group consists of animals that live in water; fish, prawns, crayfish and crabs (some crabs also live on land). We use them for food. They provide us with proteins, minerals and vitamins.

Fish Prawn

Crab

Apart from providing us with food, animals also provide other useful things already listed, animals provide glue (from their bones), wool and fur (from their coats) and ivory (from elephants’ tusks) used in making some kinds of furniture.

EVALUATION

1. Enumerate three types of animals and mention the resources they provide for us.
2. Mention other ways by which resources from animals can be used.

SUB-TOPIC 3: ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF RESOURCES TO SELF AND SOCIETY

Plants and animal resources are economically important to man and the society. They are sources of;

1. Food for man and livestock e.g. vegetables, fruits, seeds, tubers, meat, eggs, butter, etc.
2. Raw materials for industries e.g. rubber, cocoa, ginger, groundnut, cotton, Mahogany, etc.
3. Family and national income, that is from the local sale or export of the resources.
4. Manure; which help to replenish soil fertility.
5. Fuel e.g. firewood, charcoal, biogas, etc.
6. Medicine e.g. Penicillin
7. Herbicides etc.

Plant and animal resources can also have harmful/ negative implications on man and his environment. This could arise from;

1. Pollution e.g. stench from refuse dumps and sewage; gases from burning fuels; etc.
2. Contamination of food or water thereby causing ill health in plants and animals.
3. Their being used as biological weapons e.g. Anthrax dust.
4. Over consumption of foodstuff which may cause health problems like obesity, bedwetting, diabetes, heart and circulatory diseases.

EVALUATION

Discuss briefly the economic importance of resources from living things to your society.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

1. (a) Mention five plants and five animals people in your community make use of.
2. In what ways do people use such plants and animals?

READING ASSIGNMENT

Functional Basic Science for JJS Book 3; by Onyirioha, C. U et al. (pgs 81-95)

WEEK 5

DATE………………

TOPIC: RESOURCES FROM NON-LIVING THINGS

CONTENT

1. Soil – Formation/ Composition; Types; Uses.
2. Solid Minerals – Examples; Importance and uses.
3. Distribution of solid minerals in Nigeria.

SUB-TOPIC 1: FORMATION OF SOIL

Soil is formed from rocks over thousands of years through a process known as weathering. Weathering is a chemical, physical, or biological means of breaking down rock into the small particles that eventually make up the soil.

Soil is composed of;

1. The products of weathering which are inorganic in nature. They include stone, gravel, clay, sand, silt. In these particles are minerals such as magnesium, iron, phosphorus etc.
2. Organic materials such as dead plants and animals, parts of plants, and animal waste.
3. Water, air, and soil organisms (e.g. earthworm, termites, bacteria, fungi etc.).

The inorganic particles determine to a large extent the properties of soil type.

TYPES OF SOIL

Soils are composed of a mixture of particles. These particles are sand, silt and clay which all have varying amount of humus. Humus is formed by the action of soil organisms on dead plants and animals as well as on animal wastes. Humus among other functions it performs in the soil helps the inorganic particles of the soil to stick together in crumbs. Therefore, the amount of humus in the soil also determines the properties of a soil type.

There are three major types of soil:

1. Sandy soil: This consists of fine and large particles irregularly arranged. It has a loose structure.
2. Loamy soil: This consists of a small amount of sand and clay particles combined with decaying organic matter formed from plant and animal tissue.
3. Clayey soil: This is made up of very fine particles with very little space in between them.

Properties of Sandy Soil

1. It is very porous.
2. Water drains away quickly.
3. It is coarse and easy to work (e.g. during tillage).
4. Requires fertilizer to grow crops well.

Sandy soil

Properties of Clayey Soil

1. It is a fine-grained and heavy soil.
2. Water drains away poorly. They water log easily.
3. Difficult to work on.
4. Hardens and cracks during dry season.
5. Needs careful management to grow crops.

Clayey soil

Properties of Loamy Soil

1. It is a mixture of sand and clay particles.
2. Has good crumb structure which drains well yet retains sufficient water for crop growth.
3. It has plenty of nutrients and is therefore good for agricultural purposes.

Loamy soil

USES OF SOIL

The importance of soil to man cannot be over-emphasized. Soil is used for;

1. Cultivating crops
2. Grazing of animals (livestock)
3. Building of houses
4. Making pottery (pots, flower vases, artifacts, etc.)
5. Serves as home for soil organisms.
6. Provides materials for building houses.
7. Provides surface for construction of roads, buildings and other activities of man

EVALUATION

1. Mention three components of soil.
2. Name three differences between the three main types of soil.
3. State five uses of soil.

Sub-Topic 2: SOLID MINERALS

Solid minerals are naturally occurring chemical elements or compounds which are found in rocks or in the soil, examples are gold, salt, tin etc.Minerals can exist as solids or non-solids or a combination of both. All rocks are made up of minerals. Rocks which contain a high concentration of the mineral of a particular metal, from which it can be profitably mined is called the ore of that metal e.g. iron ore, copper ore, etc.

Solid minerals have been found deposited in some parts of Nigeria in commercial quantities and they are of valuable use to man. Due to their importance, the federal government established the Ministry of Solid Minerals to handle all matters concerning solid minerals.

Man utilizes some of these minerals in their natural/crude form while some of them have been combined with other materials i.e. processed to form products which are useful to man.

There are about 34 minerals resources found in Nigeria. They include columbite, gold, zinc, diamond, gypsum, limestone, tin, copper, etc.

Scientific study of minerals is called mineralogy and the scientist who studies mineralogy is called a mineralogist.

Below is a table showing some mineral resources found in Nigeria, their location and uses.

Table Showing Mineral Resources Found In Nigeria and Their Uses

EVALUATION

1. What is a solid mineral?
2. Name five solid minerals found in Nigeria and state two uses/importance of each.

Sub-Topic 3: DISTRIBUTION OF SOLID MINERALS IN NIGERIA

The map below shows the distribution of some important solid minerals in Nigeria.

KEY TO SYMBOLS

EVALUATION

Nigeria is divided into six geo-political zones. Mention three solid minerals found in your zone

and state their locations.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

1. In which soil type would you expect a plant to grow best and why?
2. Draw a map of Nigeria and insert the locations of the minerals discussed in class.

READING ASSIGNMENT

Functional Basic Science for JJS Book 3; by Onyirioha, C. U et al. (Pgs 96-107)

WEEK 6

Topic: SKILL ACQUISTION

CONTENT:

1. Meaning of Skill Acquisition.
2. Reasons for Skill Acquisition
3. Types of Skills
4. Importance of skill acquisition, improve quality of life, appreciate human capabilities.

TOPIC: SKILL ACQUISTION

Skill is the ability to do something well. Skills that can be acquired to earn a living include: knowledge of computer operations, hairdressing, tailoring, auto repair, pottery, bread making, etc.

Sub –Topic1: Meaning of Skill Acquisition

Skill acquisition is the art of learning to do something in order to earn a living and or to

Survive. There are different types of professional e.g. Fine artists, mechanics,

Potter, vulcanizes, from whom one can learn trades in order to earn a living.

Learning to read and write is a skill you acquire at school. Therefore, skill acquisition

Involves learning to do something well. It helps to improve quality of life and appreciate

human capability.

Reasons for Skill Acquisition

There are many reasons why one will want to acquire a skill. Some of these may include:

1. Taking risks
2. Decision Making.
3. Managing emergency situation
4. Survival strategy
5. Leaning to live together.

Sub-Topic2: Types of skills

There are different types of skills. Skills are learnt in:

1. Farming: This is the skill acquired for crop and animal husbandry. People farm in order to survive. Crop husbandry involves planting crops such as maize, cassava, yam, plantain, etc. Animal husbandry involves fish farming, poultry farming, snail farming, etc.

2. Basic computer literacy: learning to operate a computer is a skill.

3. Photography: This is the art, process or job of taking photographs or filming an object by

different types of camera

4. Internet browsing- e-mail operation: Internet browsing is the act of looking for information

On the internet using a computer. E-mail is electronic mailing system. It is a fast means of

Sending and receiving mails on the Internet through a computer

5. Fax (facsimile): Fax machine short form for facsimile machine is a device that can send or

receive pictures and text over a telephone line.

A MODERN FAX MACHINE

1. Desktop publishing and networking

Importance of skill acquisition

Skills enable us to;

1. Secure employment;
2. Improve our quality of life;
3. Enjoy our lives, e.g. photography, soccer;
4. Save lives, e.g. first aid;
5. Provide services to other people, e.g. carpentry, welding;
6. Communicate with other people, e.g. computer literacy; and
7. Improve our knowledge.

Evaluation

1. Explain what is meant by skill acquisition.
2. Give two reasons why we need to acquire skills.
3. List three types of skills.

Weekend Assignment:

1. What is skill?
2. List any 3 skills you may wish to acquire in your order of preference and state why.

Week 7:

Topic: ETHICAL ISSUES IN SCIENCE AND DEVELOPMENT

CONTENT:

1. Meaning of right and wrong application of science.
2. Implications of the application of science to the development of the society.

Introduction:

Science is the study of structure and behavior of the physical and natural world and phenomenon through a systematic observation and experiment. This study has opened and widened the knowledge and capacity of man beyond his imagination.

Sub-Topic1: Meaning of Right and Wrong Applications of Science

THE RIGHT APPLICATIONS OF SCIENCE

The application of any knowledge gained from science that will directly or

Indirectly benefit mankind is described as the right application. There are many applications of science that have benefited mankind in all areas of his existences. Some of these applications are in the areas of:

1. Health and medicine: Through the scientific study of human health, science has discovered and produced drugs for the cure of many diseases. Some of the deadly diseases that caused death of men, women and children in the olden days like smallpox, malaria, tetanus, etc.

2. Transportation: in the olden days, before the great advances in science, people trekked from one place to another carrying heavy load on their heads. With the invention of bicycles, cars, Lorries, ships, aero planes, etc., transportation of goods and services has become easier, faster and more comfortable.

OLD MEANS OF TRANSPORTATION

MODERN TRANSPORTATION METHODS

3. Agriculture: food is now produced in very large quantities with minimal lab our through the use of modern farming equipment like tractors, ridgers, combine harvesters, etc. the yield of crops per given area has tremendously increased through the use of scientifically improved seedlings and seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, etc.

4. Communication: Scientific advances have greatly improved the ease and speed of communication. Transfer of information between people separated by wide distance is achieved through the use of telephone, GSM, internet, etc.

5. Security: as a result of scientific inventions, human lives and properties have become more secure than in the olden days. Scientific equipment like smoke detector, weather satellite, seismic detectors, etc. , can give us advance warning of impending dangers like fire, hurricane, drought, earthquake, volcanic eruptions, etc. this will enable us act on time to stop the danger or reduce its effect. With scientific equipment, we can defend ourselves against attacks from dangerous animals and from fellow human beings.

Sub-Topic 2: Wrong applications of science

When science is wrongly applied, it causes problems, miseries, destructions and even deaths. Individuals and nations should take care on how science is applied. Its wrong application has far reaching devastating consequences.

Wrong applications of science are:

1. Health and medicine: the manufacture and release into the market of fake and substandard drugs have led to loss of many lives. Some medicines become poison when wrongly taken hence; many drugs carry the label ‘keep out of reach of children’.
2. Transportation: Roads accidents occur due to poor maintenance of roads and vehicles.

air disasters also occur due to poor maintenance and ageing of aircrafts. This mishaps lead to loss of lives and property.

1. Agriculture: Some of the chemicals used in agriculture like pesticides are poisonous.

When they are washed into rivers and streams they poison the water and destroy aquatic lives.

Sprayer

1. Communication: through the use of internet, computer, phone, etc. fraud and

Pornography, terrorism, and other criminal activities are easily and rapidly carried out.

1. Security: mankind can be wiped off the earth at the press of a button. This is what

the discovery of atomic energy and manufacture of atomic brought about by the use of

biological warfare weapons such as the release of anthrax dust into the atmosphere. Its

effects are far reaching.

IMPLICATIONS OF SCIENCE TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SOCIETY

Science has both positive and negative implications to the development of the society. The usefulness of science to the society and the danger it poses depends on the person using or manipulating it and the use to which it is put.

The results of science include chemical, biological and nuclear weapons, which are some of the most destructive weapons that have ever been made in the world.

Evaluation

1. List 3 good scientific practices.
2. Mention three bad scientific practices.
3. What are the reasons for good and bad scientific practices?

Weekend Assignment

1. State 2 ways science can contribute to national development
2. Do you know that one careless action you may take can affect the well-being of others and your physical environment? State 2 practical things you can do personally to show that you care for the welfare of others.

Week 8: Light Energy

CONTENT: 1.Review of the concepts of (I) reflection (ii) refraction of light

1. Apparent depth and its dangers to swimmers.
2. Vision
3. Dispersion and rainbow.

TOPIC: Light Energy

Light is a form of energy. It enables us to see things when it is reflected from objects into

our eyes.

Sub-Topic1: Review of the concepts of reflection

Reflection is the sending back of rays of light after striking a reflecting surface. Reflection from a surface depends on how smooth or rough the surface is. A reflection from a smooth surface like a mirror is regular while that from rough surfaces like walls and stones is irregular or diffuse.

There are two basic laws of reflection. These are:

1. The incident ray, the normal ray and the reflected ray at the point of incidence, all lie on the same plane.
2. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection

APPLICATIONS OF REFLECTION IN SOME OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS

For example:

1. The plane mirror is used as a dressing mirror because it shows a reflection of our image.
2. The simple periscope contains two plane mirrors facing each other, and inclined at an angle of 45⁰ to the horizontal. It is used to view beyond obstacles e.g. in submarines, simple periscopes are used to view ships on the ocean.
3. The sextant: this is used for finding the angle of elevation of the sun; it also consists of two mirrors.
4. The kaleidoscope: This is used for producing different color patters when turned. It makes use of plane mirrors inclined at 60⁰ to each other.

Sub-Topic 2: Refraction of light

The change in direction of light as it passes from one medium to another is known as refraction. For instance, light which bounces back from an object that is placed underwater travels first through water and then the air, before it gets to the eyes of the observer? At some angles, the object partially submerged will appear to bend where it enters the water; this is because light from that part underwater is refracted.

Light always travels at different speeds through different materials, hence it changes speed at the boundary between two materials. When a beam of light falls on boundary at an angle, light on the side of the beam which gets there first, is fired to speed up or slow down, after which the light from the other side’s touches the new materials. It makes the beam to bend or be refracted at the boundary.

Apparent Depth

The concept of apparent depth can be explained through the phenomenon of refraction.

When a coin is dropped into a cup of water and of water and viewed directly from above, it appears to be nearer the water surface.

The distance between the level where the coins is and the surface of the water is the real depth; while the distance between the level where the coin appears to be and the surface of the water is the apparent depth. Other areas where we have apparent depth include:

1. The depth of a swimming pool always appears shallower than it is in reality. This could be dangerous to a swimmer who would think that the pool is not deep and could get drowned if he is not a good swimmer.
2. A thick glass slab e.g. a rectangular glass block, appears not to be as thick as it actually is, when viewed directly from above.

Sub-Topic 3: VISION

Vision is the ability to see. The eye is the organ with which we see.

The eye consists of the following parts:

1. Eye lens: The eye lens is used for focusing light entering the eye onto the retina. It produces real but inverted images of objects on the retina.
2. Retina: This is the light sensitive area at the back of the eye where inverted images are formed. The optical nerves begin at the retina.

The working of the eye

1. Cornea: this is the tick protective transparent layer in front of the eye. It begins the refraction of light entering the eye.
2. The pupil: This is a circular opening (hole) in the eye which permits light to enter the eye. In dim light, the opening increases to allow more light to enter but in bright, the opening decreases to reduce the amount of light entering the eye.
3. Iris: this is the colored circular part in front of the eye lens. it controls or regulates the amount of light entering the eye by increasing or decreasing the size of the pupil.
4. Ciliary muscles: These are attached to the eye lens and are used to vary its thickness and consequently its focal length. This enables the eye to focus objects at different distances on the retina.
5. The optic nerves: The optic nerves transmit light impulses from the retina to the brain for interpretation.
6. The aqueous humour: This is a transparent liquid between the eye lens and cornea. It helps in the refraction of light.
7. The vitreous humour: This is a transparent jelly – like liquid between the eye lens and

the retina. It also helps in refraction of light and in maintaining the shape of the eye.

DISPERSION OF LIGHT

Dispersion of light is the seperation of white light into its component colours.

White light comprises seven different colours, these colours are Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo and Violet. It can be easily remebered by forming an acronym with the first letter of each colour (ROYGBIV). It is in these order it appear when separated.

The seven colours of ROYGBIV are known as the spectrum of white light. When white light travels from air or vacuum into a denser medium, the speed of its component colors varies. This results in dispersion i.e. separation of component colours of white light. Dispersion of white light can be obtained by shinning a beam of white light throught a triangular prism before a white screen.

DISPERSION AND RINBOW

When sunlight rays get into a raindrops, the light bends or refracts in a manner to form the spectrum of colors. The red light is refracted the least and violet light is refracted the most.All other colors fall in between the red and violet colors thereby forming the rainbow.

Rainbow formation

Evaluation

1. Explain reflection and refraction.
2. What is meant by apparent depth?
3. What is the danger of apparent depth to swimmers?

Weekend Assignment

1. How would you explain the process of seeing an object?
2. Draw and label the eye.

Week 9

TOPIC: Magnetism

CONTENTS:

i. meaning of magnet

ii. Loadstone

1. Laws of Magnetism
2. Magnetic poles and magnetic fields
3. Care for magnets

Sub-Topic 1: Meaning of magnet

When a magnet is put in a container filled with office pins or needles, by the time you bring the magnet out of the container; most of the pins or needles would have clung to it.

It shows that a magnet can attract needles and some other materials like cobalt, nickel, iron etc.

All the materials which can be attracted by magnet are called magnetic materials. The ability of a magnet to attract magnetic materials is called magnetism.

A magnet

Lodestone

Lodestone also called magnetite is a black oxide of iron ore (Fe₃0₄).it has the ability to attract small pieces of iron and other pieces of magnetic materials. It is the original magnet,and large deposits of this substance were first discovered in Magnesia, in Asia, from where the name magnet was formed.

Law of magnetism

The law of magnetism states that like poles of a magnet repel each other, while unlike poles attracts each other.

It implies that north and south poles of a magnet attract each other while the north pole of a magnet repels the north pole of another magnet. Similarly, the south pole of a magnet repels the south pole of another magnet.

Sub-Topic2: Magnetic poles and magnetic fields

If a bar magnet is tied in the middle and suspended in the air, when the bar magnet is made to swig freely, after some time it comes to rest in the north- south direction. If there is attraction, then the pole of the magnet beside the north-seeking pole of the standard magnet is the south-seeking pole.

Poles of a magnet

Magnetic Field

Magnetic fieid refers to the region around a magnet where the effects of the force due to the magnet can be felt by magnetic materials.

Magnetic materials are substances that can be attracted by magnets e.g.iron, steel, nickel, cobalt and certain alloys of iron. Maginets do not attract non-magnetic materials.Examples of non – magnetic materials include: rubber, glass, wood, etc.

A magnet has the ability to attract magnetic materials to itself over a distance with no contact between them. Therefore, the space around a magnet where this attraction is possible is the magnetic field. The magnet field around a magnet is made up of fild lnes.

MAGNETIC FIELD

Care of magnets

1. Magnets should not be allowed to drop from a height onto a hard surface. This can weaken their magnetic properties.
2. Magnets should not be hammered. This can also weaken its quality.
3. Heating to a high temperature removes the magnetic qualities of permanent magnets and spoils the steel.
4. Magnets should be stored away properly after use.

Evaluation

1. (a) Describe the lodestone.

(b) Mention any 2 qualities of lodestone.

1. (a) What is magnetic force?

(b) State the law of magnetism.

(c) List two methods of caring for a magnet.

Weekend Assignment

Explain how to show the magnetic fields around a magnet.

Week 10. Revision

Week 11. Examination

Week 12. Examination

BASIC SCIENCE TEXT BOOKS:

1. Functional Basic Science for JJS Book 3; by Onyirioha, C. U et al.